Soemhow - and I can't defend it - I became obsessed with "Dancing with the Stars". I think I know why. It's LIVE TV where mediocre or past-their-prime celebrities compete to see who can most embarass themselves. No net! Just let it all hang out, wardrobe malfunctions, and bad choices, and all.
Wel, after a zillionth time reading about Howard Lovecraft's weather stuff, reading every weather bulletin the government printed, every story about the Providence Journal building, looking at every 1906 and 1907 US weather data maps online, I suddenly realized my major error.
When Howard mentions his weather station is on top of the "R I Journal" building, it isn't the new edifice built in 1906 for the ProJo. It's his house's rooftop. The "R I Journal" was his little newsletter, and I mistook it for a typo or error for the Providence Journal.
He wasn't a volunteer US Meteorological weather observer, but an entrepreneur peddling weather predictions. He only purchased official US paper to circulate his weather.
He didn't ride his bike everyday to a weather station, he looked out the window of the attic.
All that expensive equipment he used, and listed - he and Susan must have bought it!
And by my estimates from contemporary catalogues and such, that equipment set them back plenty.
Anywa, for those of you who follow Chrispy's explorations into Lovecraft;s life, that's where it seems to be as of now.
Showing posts with label meteorology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label meteorology. Show all posts
Tuesday, October 26, 2010
Tuesday, April 13, 2010
An anecdote from another observation
It appears that the government was able to select very reliable individuals who observed for long periods of time. In science this is important, so that even if idiosyncracies happen, they are consistent idiosyncracies and can be traced and accounted for by those who receive reports.
Lovecraft was one of those individuals, and it's notable that in a metropolis like Providence with many choices, it was HE who was selected. {Does one see the gentle hand of Winslow Upton?}
In comparative history, one tries to select incidences that illuminate the trials of the event. Sadly, history chooses arbitrarily what data it gives as the fortunes of time erode references and sources vanish. However, this story is interesting, and coincides somewhat with Lovecraft's time period. It illuminates what may have happened to Lovecraft - and the ever present pressure of taking daily observations.
_____
Observations after Fort Ripley closed in 1877
After the post closed in 1877 there was a desire to continue observations in someform at Fort Ripley. In August 1887 a river and rainfall station began with C.B. Clouse asthe observer. His location was most likely at the new town of Fort Ripley located justacross the river. The forms used were (Form No. 180-1887) Beginning in 1894 form 1009was used. His last observation was on May 31, 1895. There is a gap until the nextobservations began with J.J. Tucker in June 1906. This new site was a full cooperativestation with max/min thermometers, a rain gauge and a river gauge. During the early years some problems were noticed with the minimum thermometer.
Clarence A. Tucker (The son of J.J Tucker took over in May 1914 and continued to November 1918. Then Irving R. Tucker and his mother were the observers beginning inNovember 1918. A note on the June 14, 1926 inspection reports notes: “Minimum thermometer elevated at the bulb about 40 degrees and there were a number of separationsin the alcohol column.
Minimum temperature record not reliable and should not be used. The length of time the thermometer has been out of ordercould not be determined from the observer. A new shelter and support would be required ifrecords continue long, but the present it is likely the Mother of the Observer, who is thecooperative observer will resign.”
Apparently Irving Tucker decided to keep the station going for the next 27 years and was the observer until September 1953. However,thermometer measurements ceased on December 31, 1928
Lovecraft was one of those individuals, and it's notable that in a metropolis like Providence with many choices, it was HE who was selected. {Does one see the gentle hand of Winslow Upton?}
In comparative history, one tries to select incidences that illuminate the trials of the event. Sadly, history chooses arbitrarily what data it gives as the fortunes of time erode references and sources vanish. However, this story is interesting, and coincides somewhat with Lovecraft's time period. It illuminates what may have happened to Lovecraft - and the ever present pressure of taking daily observations.
_____
Observations after Fort Ripley closed in 1877
After the post closed in 1877 there was a desire to continue observations in someform at Fort Ripley. In August 1887 a river and rainfall station began with C.B. Clouse asthe observer. His location was most likely at the new town of Fort Ripley located justacross the river. The forms used were (Form No. 180-1887) Beginning in 1894 form 1009was used. His last observation was on May 31, 1895. There is a gap until the nextobservations began with J.J. Tucker in June 1906. This new site was a full cooperativestation with max/min thermometers, a rain gauge and a river gauge. During the early years some problems were noticed with the minimum thermometer.
Clarence A. Tucker (The son of J.J Tucker took over in May 1914 and continued to November 1918. Then Irving R. Tucker and his mother were the observers beginning inNovember 1918. A note on the June 14, 1926 inspection reports notes: “Minimum thermometer elevated at the bulb about 40 degrees and there were a number of separationsin the alcohol column.
Minimum temperature record not reliable and should not be used. The length of time the thermometer has been out of ordercould not be determined from the observer. A new shelter and support would be required ifrecords continue long, but the present it is likely the Mother of the Observer, who is thecooperative observer will resign.”
Apparently Irving Tucker decided to keep the station going for the next 27 years and was the observer until September 1953. However,thermometer measurements ceased on December 31, 1928
"Cooperative Observers"
Lovecraft was obviosuly in a special program for meteorological observations. So, Lovecraftians, I shall not try to reproduce the entire document, but give the reference only (click on the title above) and some excerpts below.
From the governent text, two things become obvious. Lovecraft needed Munroe (or someone) to help him, and some but not all of the equipment must have been loaned to him by the US Government. In 1915 there were 4500 observers, and so Lovecraft was definitely in the elite group - and as early as 14.
Lovecraft was not playing scientist, but was doing applied science. As point in fact, NOAA notes: From Nov. 1899 through Jan. 1932, daily weather observations were submitted from Tuskegee, Alabama, on government Form 1009 as part of the Cooperative Observer Program. Most of these daily observations were handwritten and signed by George Washington Carver!
Here are highlights, however from the 1915 copy of the document.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR COOPERATIVE OBSERVERS.
CIRCULARS B AND C, INSTRUMENT DIVISION.
FIFTH EDITION.
WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PEINTINQ OFIIOB.
1915.
{About 10 years after Lovecraft began his observations, sorry}
Introduction 5
I. Instructions for the erection and care of instruments 6
The object of temperature readings and exposure of thermometers 6
General description of thermometers 8
Instructions for reuniting detached columns of alcohol 10
Instructions for mounting maximum and minimum thermometers 14
The rain gage 17
How to measure rainfall and snowfall 19
General instructions about instruments 21
II. Making and recording observations 22
Temperature records 23
Precipitation records 24
Miscellaneous phenomena 25
Nomenclature 27
Form 1009, meteorological, sample monthly record 29
{Excerpts}
The object of this pamphlet is to furnish cooperative observers with brief instructions for their guidance in taking and recording meteorological observations ... To render these observations of the greatest value and to facilitate their use in investigating questions relating to chmate, it is important that a uniform system for the exposure of the instruments and the recording of the observations be adopted.
There are at this writing about 4,500 cooperative observers in the
United States. The records furnished by these observers are of great value ... it is the policy of the bureau to foster and encourage the keeping of such records. ... Besides the records mentioned above the observers furnish reports that form in part the basis of the National Weather and Crop Bulletin ... The cooperative observer who each day faithfully records the readings of his instruments and notes the meteorological conditions prevailing at ... station is performing a valuable public service.
The publications in which his records appear are constantly consulted by
persons in practically every walk of life, seeking information regard-
ing climatic conditions from the most authoritative sources.
Cooperative observers receive no money compensation for their
services, but they regularly receive such of the pubUcations of the
Weather Bureau as can be furnished free of cost.
...
A member of the observer's family, or other competent person, should be fully instructed in the matter of taking and recording observations, so that no break in the record will result from the temporary absence of the observer or from his inability from any cause to make the necessary observations. {Munroe?}
For the purpose of securing the observations necessary to meet the requirements of those entitled to such information, the Chief of the Weather Bureau is authorized by law to loan instruments to persons willing to take their observations, on certain conditions. These conditions, in the main, are the safe-keeping of the instruments, their return to the Weather Bureau if for any reason the station is discontinued, and the furnishing of copies of the observations to the section director ...
... Cooperative observers are usually furnished with maximum and minimum thermometers, instrument shelters, and rain gages, but not with barometers, wind vanes, or anemometers; nor will instruments be suppUed when the proposed station is considered too near others aheady established.
{Lovecraft had this equipment, so somehow it was purchased by others, or himself at a great expense.}
Blank forms and franked envelopes are furnished free of expense to the observers for transmitting reports to the section centers. // Observers willing to furnish the local press with meteorological data for pubUcation wiU be suppUed with suitable postal-card forms, properly addressed, upon appUcation to the section director.
{One suspects that this data was sent by Lovecraft to the newspapers he was associated with}
The cooperative observer is requested to fill up and forward to the
section center, as soon as the equipment is installed, a copy of Form
No. 4029 Mis.
47. Observations desired. — It is requested that cooperative observers
make and record, daily, observations of the maximum and minimum
temperatures; precipitation (rainfall or snowfall); the state of the
weather — that is, the general character of the day from sunrise to
sunset; and such other miscellaneous phenomena as frost, coronas,
thunderstorms, tornadoes, and am-oras.
Form 1009, furnished by the section centers, is arranged to facilitate
recording the data desired by the Weather Bureau.
48. Time of making observations. — But one observation in each
24 hours is necessary on the part of cooperative observers, since the
average of the readings of the maximum and minimum thermometers
gives an approximately correct mean temperature for the day.
Uniformity as to time of taking observations is desired. A definite
hour should be determined upon and the observations made each day
as near that hour as possible. About sunset is recommended as the
most satisfactory time for making the record, as the thermometers
will then, except under unusual conditions, register both the maxi-
mum and the minimum temperatures for the day. The time at which
observations are taken should invariably be noted on Form No. 1009.
49. Form 1009, meteorological monthly record.
{As thunderstorms are most notable on his 1906 report... see instructions below}
MISCELLANEOUS PHENOMENA
61. Frost, — Occurrence of first and last frost of the growing season should be specially noted.
62. Coronas. — These must be distinguished from halos. Coronas are broad bands of light, very commonly seen around the moon, due to rays of light passing through a thin layer of cloud. ... A solar corona is not often visible, on account of the
dazzling brightness of the sun, but is may generally be seen by viewing the sun through colored glass, or noticing its reflection in water.
63. Halos ... arise from the presence in the atmosphere of minute prisms of ice, and are due to refraction of light. ... These are called "parhelia" or "paraselence" (mock suns or mock moons) , sometimes sun dogs.
64. Thunderstorms, — Thunderstorms 6 hours apart may be considered as separate storms.
Upon the occurrence of thunder, give as nearly as possible the times of first and loudest thimder and its duration, being careful to note if
a. m. or p. m.
_____
This was not a trivial task, and Lovecraft was entrusted. This may easily explain why his teachers at Hope High School allowed him to come and go. He would have had to maintain these records EVEN WHEN HE WAS NOT IN SCHOOL. Whatever incapacitated him, he was able to maintain his schedule for three solid years or would have been terminated.
A survey of Lovecraft's intense activities indicate - or imply - that school was secondary to his own activities.
From the governent text, two things become obvious. Lovecraft needed Munroe (or someone) to help him, and some but not all of the equipment must have been loaned to him by the US Government. In 1915 there were 4500 observers, and so Lovecraft was definitely in the elite group - and as early as 14.
Lovecraft was not playing scientist, but was doing applied science. As point in fact, NOAA notes: From Nov. 1899 through Jan. 1932, daily weather observations were submitted from Tuskegee, Alabama, on government Form 1009 as part of the Cooperative Observer Program. Most of these daily observations were handwritten and signed by George Washington Carver!
Here are highlights, however from the 1915 copy of the document.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR COOPERATIVE OBSERVERS.
CIRCULARS B AND C, INSTRUMENT DIVISION.
FIFTH EDITION.
WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PEINTINQ OFIIOB.
1915.
{About 10 years after Lovecraft began his observations, sorry}
Introduction 5
I. Instructions for the erection and care of instruments 6
The object of temperature readings and exposure of thermometers 6
General description of thermometers 8
Instructions for reuniting detached columns of alcohol 10
Instructions for mounting maximum and minimum thermometers 14
The rain gage 17
How to measure rainfall and snowfall 19
General instructions about instruments 21
II. Making and recording observations 22
Temperature records 23
Precipitation records 24
Miscellaneous phenomena 25
Nomenclature 27
Form 1009, meteorological, sample monthly record 29
{Excerpts}
The object of this pamphlet is to furnish cooperative observers with brief instructions for their guidance in taking and recording meteorological observations ... To render these observations of the greatest value and to facilitate their use in investigating questions relating to chmate, it is important that a uniform system for the exposure of the instruments and the recording of the observations be adopted.
There are at this writing about 4,500 cooperative observers in the
United States. The records furnished by these observers are of great value ... it is the policy of the bureau to foster and encourage the keeping of such records. ... Besides the records mentioned above the observers furnish reports that form in part the basis of the National Weather and Crop Bulletin ... The cooperative observer who each day faithfully records the readings of his instruments and notes the meteorological conditions prevailing at ... station is performing a valuable public service.
The publications in which his records appear are constantly consulted by
persons in practically every walk of life, seeking information regard-
ing climatic conditions from the most authoritative sources.
Cooperative observers receive no money compensation for their
services, but they regularly receive such of the pubUcations of the
Weather Bureau as can be furnished free of cost.
...
A member of the observer's family, or other competent person, should be fully instructed in the matter of taking and recording observations, so that no break in the record will result from the temporary absence of the observer or from his inability from any cause to make the necessary observations. {Munroe?}
For the purpose of securing the observations necessary to meet the requirements of those entitled to such information, the Chief of the Weather Bureau is authorized by law to loan instruments to persons willing to take their observations, on certain conditions. These conditions, in the main, are the safe-keeping of the instruments, their return to the Weather Bureau if for any reason the station is discontinued, and the furnishing of copies of the observations to the section director ...
... Cooperative observers are usually furnished with maximum and minimum thermometers, instrument shelters, and rain gages, but not with barometers, wind vanes, or anemometers; nor will instruments be suppUed when the proposed station is considered too near others aheady established.
{Lovecraft had this equipment, so somehow it was purchased by others, or himself at a great expense.}
Blank forms and franked envelopes are furnished free of expense to the observers for transmitting reports to the section centers. // Observers willing to furnish the local press with meteorological data for pubUcation wiU be suppUed with suitable postal-card forms, properly addressed, upon appUcation to the section director.
{One suspects that this data was sent by Lovecraft to the newspapers he was associated with}
The cooperative observer is requested to fill up and forward to the
section center, as soon as the equipment is installed, a copy of Form
No. 4029 Mis.
47. Observations desired. — It is requested that cooperative observers
make and record, daily, observations of the maximum and minimum
temperatures; precipitation (rainfall or snowfall); the state of the
weather — that is, the general character of the day from sunrise to
sunset; and such other miscellaneous phenomena as frost, coronas,
thunderstorms, tornadoes, and am-oras.
Form 1009, furnished by the section centers, is arranged to facilitate
recording the data desired by the Weather Bureau.
48. Time of making observations. — But one observation in each
24 hours is necessary on the part of cooperative observers, since the
average of the readings of the maximum and minimum thermometers
gives an approximately correct mean temperature for the day.
Uniformity as to time of taking observations is desired. A definite
hour should be determined upon and the observations made each day
as near that hour as possible. About sunset is recommended as the
most satisfactory time for making the record, as the thermometers
will then, except under unusual conditions, register both the maxi-
mum and the minimum temperatures for the day. The time at which
observations are taken should invariably be noted on Form No. 1009.
49. Form 1009, meteorological monthly record.
{As thunderstorms are most notable on his 1906 report... see instructions below}
MISCELLANEOUS PHENOMENA
61. Frost, — Occurrence of first and last frost of the growing season should be specially noted.
62. Coronas. — These must be distinguished from halos. Coronas are broad bands of light, very commonly seen around the moon, due to rays of light passing through a thin layer of cloud. ... A solar corona is not often visible, on account of the
dazzling brightness of the sun, but is may generally be seen by viewing the sun through colored glass, or noticing its reflection in water.
63. Halos ... arise from the presence in the atmosphere of minute prisms of ice, and are due to refraction of light. ... These are called "parhelia" or "paraselence" (mock suns or mock moons) , sometimes sun dogs.
64. Thunderstorms, — Thunderstorms 6 hours apart may be considered as separate storms.
Upon the occurrence of thunder, give as nearly as possible the times of first and loudest thimder and its duration, being careful to note if
a. m. or p. m.
_____
This was not a trivial task, and Lovecraft was entrusted. This may easily explain why his teachers at Hope High School allowed him to come and go. He would have had to maintain these records EVEN WHEN HE WAS NOT IN SCHOOL. Whatever incapacitated him, he was able to maintain his schedule for three solid years or would have been terminated.
A survey of Lovecraft's intense activities indicate - or imply - that school was secondary to his own activities.
Monday, April 12, 2010
What is a "Sixe's Thermometer"?
Lovecraft mentions he used a standard thermometer, and a Sixe's thermometer. In the U.S. it has been abbreviated, sometimes, to Six's thermometer. HPL used the expanded spelling.
Above is a modern item, and shows: A Maximum Minimum thermometer. The scales are Fahrenheit on the inside of the U and Celsius on the outside. The current temperature is 23 degrees Celsius, The maximum recorded is 25, and the minimum is 15, both read from the base of the small markers in each arm of the U tube. The bulbs are hidden by a plastic housing.
These were not easy to maintain, and may have easily caused Lovecraft to be late for school. He may have sometimes had a mercury mess. *
The Sixe's thermometer is notoriously known for separations in the mercury column, in particular after shipment, though accidental knocks have been known causes as well. Separations can usually be corrected by swinging the thermometer like a large old school fever thermometer. The centrifugal force will then force the mercury together again. Should the markers be partly buried in the mercury they can either be pulled up again with the magnet or put to a temperature change that leaves the markers uncovered. It is however important NOT to use a magnet to pull up markers in the push button type because there's a risk of damaging the weak magnet behind the scale or magnetize the steel in the markers with equal fatal consequences - either weakening or enhancing the pulling force against the capillary tube on all or part of the scale.
How it works: ... consists of a U-shaped capillary tube with two separate temperature readings, one for the maximum temperature and one for the minimum temperature. There are bulbs at the top of each arm of the U-shaped tube. The one at the top of the minimum reading scale contains alcohol, the other contains a vacuum or low pressure alcohol vapour.
In the bend of the U is a section of mercury element mercury which is pushed around the tube by the expansion and contraction of the alcohol in the first bulb. It is the alcohol which measures the temperature, the mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales.
At any given time the reading of the mercury should be the same on both the maximum and minimum scales. If not then the instrument scales are not correctly positioned.
As the mercury moves it pushes 2 small steel markers which are sprung into the tube. They record the furthest point reached by the mercury in each arm of the tube. When the temperature reverses and the mercury is moved in the opposite direction by the expansion or contraction of the alcohol, the sprung markers remain in the tube at the furthest position they have been pushed by the mercury. They thus record the extremes of temperature experienced by the device since it was last reset.
Chrispy was unable to find a 1906 style thermometer, but here is one from 1869.
We should also discuss the other kind of thermometer. Today, we take temperatures by shining a little light and reading an LED (light emitting diode). Not so in the days of slide rules. A glass tube, sealed on both ends, was filled with mercury and scored with degree marks. As it got warmer, the mercury expanded, and as it cooled it got smaller. These were relatively fragile, and if you handled them with cold, or wet fingers, you got a *whoops* with a resulting shatter of glass and a hundred tiny droplets of silver mercury that rolled as if possessed. One cleanup was to sprinkle silver dust which immediately absorbed the droplets and amalgamated the particles and made clean up easy. Beware if you had a 14K gold ring, for it would forever silverize the gold. If you had a keen eye, you could easily read 1/100-th of a degree in a very accurate (precise) thermometer.
_____
*Mercury. Chrispy, from an early age was fascinated with science. He accompanied his mother as she cleaned offices, and back in the 60's (I'm sure the statute of limitations has expired, and all adults are now deceased) he would sneak to the dentist's bench and play with the little beads of mercury. Oh how they rolled, and dust beaded up on theri surface, and if you pushed them together, they merged ! The metal did appear alive to that little boy.
In the 1980's, in a lab I worked in, the employees often broke the mercury thermometers. (Did they ever!) When I became lab manager, and tired of chasing little droplets of mercury (since I was the designated person to chase the droplets and who actually had a chemistry degree), I switched everyone to the then-new inexpensive digital thermometers (which they also destroyed on occassion).
In Lovecraft's day, mercury was "quicksilver" and commonly used in many purposes, but mostly in dental amalgams and thermometers. If he was like any other scientist of his era, he probably knew the minimal risks and cleaned up lots of mercury spills. Glass is fragile, and accidents happen.
Mercury is a neurotoxin, and the vapors do readily evaporate and can be respirated. Do NOT use mercury. There are so many safer ways to do the job these days.
No, I don't think Lovecraft was in any way harmed if he handled mercury. I think that upon this subject I can be sure, it did not influence his weird tales.
Above is a modern item, and shows: A Maximum Minimum thermometer. The scales are Fahrenheit on the inside of the U and Celsius on the outside. The current temperature is 23 degrees Celsius, The maximum recorded is 25, and the minimum is 15, both read from the base of the small markers in each arm of the U tube. The bulbs are hidden by a plastic housing.
These were not easy to maintain, and may have easily caused Lovecraft to be late for school. He may have sometimes had a mercury mess. *
The Sixe's thermometer is notoriously known for separations in the mercury column, in particular after shipment, though accidental knocks have been known causes as well. Separations can usually be corrected by swinging the thermometer like a large old school fever thermometer. The centrifugal force will then force the mercury together again. Should the markers be partly buried in the mercury they can either be pulled up again with the magnet or put to a temperature change that leaves the markers uncovered. It is however important NOT to use a magnet to pull up markers in the push button type because there's a risk of damaging the weak magnet behind the scale or magnetize the steel in the markers with equal fatal consequences - either weakening or enhancing the pulling force against the capillary tube on all or part of the scale.
How it works: ... consists of a U-shaped capillary tube with two separate temperature readings, one for the maximum temperature and one for the minimum temperature. There are bulbs at the top of each arm of the U-shaped tube. The one at the top of the minimum reading scale contains alcohol, the other contains a vacuum or low pressure alcohol vapour.
In the bend of the U is a section of mercury element mercury which is pushed around the tube by the expansion and contraction of the alcohol in the first bulb. It is the alcohol which measures the temperature, the mercury indicates the temperature reading on both scales.
At any given time the reading of the mercury should be the same on both the maximum and minimum scales. If not then the instrument scales are not correctly positioned.
As the mercury moves it pushes 2 small steel markers which are sprung into the tube. They record the furthest point reached by the mercury in each arm of the tube. When the temperature reverses and the mercury is moved in the opposite direction by the expansion or contraction of the alcohol, the sprung markers remain in the tube at the furthest position they have been pushed by the mercury. They thus record the extremes of temperature experienced by the device since it was last reset.
Chrispy was unable to find a 1906 style thermometer, but here is one from 1869.
We should also discuss the other kind of thermometer. Today, we take temperatures by shining a little light and reading an LED (light emitting diode). Not so in the days of slide rules. A glass tube, sealed on both ends, was filled with mercury and scored with degree marks. As it got warmer, the mercury expanded, and as it cooled it got smaller. These were relatively fragile, and if you handled them with cold, or wet fingers, you got a *whoops* with a resulting shatter of glass and a hundred tiny droplets of silver mercury that rolled as if possessed. One cleanup was to sprinkle silver dust which immediately absorbed the droplets and amalgamated the particles and made clean up easy. Beware if you had a 14K gold ring, for it would forever silverize the gold. If you had a keen eye, you could easily read 1/100-th of a degree in a very accurate (precise) thermometer.
_____
*Mercury. Chrispy, from an early age was fascinated with science. He accompanied his mother as she cleaned offices, and back in the 60's (I'm sure the statute of limitations has expired, and all adults are now deceased) he would sneak to the dentist's bench and play with the little beads of mercury. Oh how they rolled, and dust beaded up on theri surface, and if you pushed them together, they merged ! The metal did appear alive to that little boy.
In the 1980's, in a lab I worked in, the employees often broke the mercury thermometers. (Did they ever!) When I became lab manager, and tired of chasing little droplets of mercury (since I was the designated person to chase the droplets and who actually had a chemistry degree), I switched everyone to the then-new inexpensive digital thermometers (which they also destroyed on occassion).
In Lovecraft's day, mercury was "quicksilver" and commonly used in many purposes, but mostly in dental amalgams and thermometers. If he was like any other scientist of his era, he probably knew the minimal risks and cleaned up lots of mercury spills. Glass is fragile, and accidents happen.
Mercury is a neurotoxin, and the vapors do readily evaporate and can be respirated. Do NOT use mercury. There are so many safer ways to do the job these days.
No, I don't think Lovecraft was in any way harmed if he handled mercury. I think that upon this subject I can be sure, it did not influence his weird tales.
Sunday, April 11, 2010
Storm Glass? What was Lovecraft Talking About?
Caveat: Do NOT try to make this at home.
_____
_____
In HPL's 1907 summary of Providence weather, he mentions he has access to a storm glass? What?
Read this query to an antique site: "I have seen a device called a storm glass which consists of a glass tube filled with a liquid containing crystals. The shape of the crystals is supposed to change according to the pressure. How does this device work? Apparently, Darwin used one on board the Beagle."
Here is an answer from some sites, and some history: The storm-glass, sometimes known as the chemical barometer or camphor glass, is an ancient weather forcaster. It consists of a sealed glass bottle containing a mixture of chemicals that undergo interesting and unusual crystal growth in response to changing weather conditions. It has been around since around 1750 but was not in common use until the 19th century.
Robert Fitzroy described the storm-glass in The Weather Book published in 1863. In this book he offers some interesting thoughts on the operation of the storm-glass suggesting atmospheric pressure, temperature, electrical disturbances and even the direction of the wind being the cause of the changes in crystal formation.
The storm glass may have been invented by an alchemist for Italian sailors. One can make a storm glass by mixing 10 grams of camphor, 40 cubic centimetres of ethanol, 2·5 grams of potassium nitrate, 2·5 grams of ammonium chloride and 33 cubic centimetres of distilled water, then placing the mixture in a corked test tube.
Changes in the liquid are supposed to show how the weather will change. Clear liquid means bright weather; dim liquid means rain. If it is dim with small stars, expect thunderstorms. Large flakes mean it will be overcast or, in winter, snowy. Crystals at the bottom mean frost and threads in the upper part mean it will be windy. If the liquid contains small dots, expect humid or foggy conditions, and if it contains small stars on sunny winter days, expect snow in a few days.
Was it useful? Read this letter:
About forty years ago I found a recipe for the liquid in a storm glass. I prepared a sample, sealed it in a glass tube and left it on the roof of a factory in south London for six months. I examined the tube every day and tried to correlate atmospheric conditions with changes in the crystals in the tube. I could find no correlation, but as the tube was sealed, its contents could only react to temperature changes and not pressure. - From South Africa.
A warning from a writer in London: There is the possibility that somebody may be seriously hurt trying to make this device without having first thought about what they are going to do. Camphor is a pungent organic chemical, which is combustible. It has a history of use as a plasticiser in explosives and is readily oxidisable; ammonium chloride decomposes when heated, releasing toxic fumes and potassium nitrate is an oxidising agent. Mixing these three chemicals together in a dry state could very probably result in the potassium nitrate oxidising the camphor, causing it to combust and the ammonium chloride to decompose. The consequences may be fatal. If this device really must be made, probably the safest way to do this is to dissolve the potassium nitrate and ammonium chloride in the water, then add the ethanol and finally the camphor.
Luckily Lovecraft did not try to make this!
... a description of a practical storm-glass taken from the book Pharmaceutical Formulas by Peter MacEwan, published in 1908. The article includes notes to assist in the reading of the instrument.
Camphor - half ounce
Ammonium chloride - half ounce
Potassium nitrate - half ounce
Rectified spirit - one ounce
Distilled water - two ounces
Weigh the spirit into the bottle and dissolve the camphor, then add the salts and the water (warm). Shake, and when dissolved filter.
Long narrow tubes of glass are filled with this solution and hermetically sealed or corked. The tubes are then affixed to boards by means of wires in the same way as barometers are fixed. The changes of the solution signify the following:
Clear liquid : Bright weather.
Crystals at bottom : Thick air, frost in winter.
Dim liquid with small stars : Thunderstorms.
Large flakes : Heavy air, overcast sky, snow in winter.
Threads in upper portion of liquid : Windy weather.
Small dots : Damp weather, fog.
Rising flakes which remain high : Wind in the upper air regions.
Small stars : In winter on bright, sunny days, snow in one or two days.
The higher the crystals rise in the glass tube in winter the colder it will be.
And here is another from a pharmacopedia:
Nearly fill a glass tube 10 in. long and ¾ in. diameter with the following liquid, then hermetically seal:-
Camphor - 2 drachm
Potassium nitrate - ½ drachm
Ammonium chloride - ½ drachm
Absolute alcohol - 2 ounces
Water - 2 ounces
Disolve.
Temperature is the main factor in changing the appearance of the solution. The indications are as follows:-
(a) During cold weather beautiful fernlike or feathery crystallisation is developed at the top, and sometimes throughout the liquid. The crystallisation increases with cold, and if the structure grows downwards the cold will continue.
(b) During warm and serene weather the crystals dissolve, the upper and greater part of the liquid, becoming perfectly clear. The greater the proportion of clear liquid, the greater the probability of fine dry weather.
(c) When the upper portion is clear and the flakes of crystals rise to the top and aggregate, it is a sign of increasing wind and stormy weather.
(d) In cold weather if the top of the liquid becomes thick and cloudy, it denotes approaching rain.
(e) In warm weather if small crystals rise in the liquid, which still maintains its clearness, rain may be expected.
(f) Sharpness in the points and features of the fern-like structure of the crystals is a sign of fine weather ; but when they begin to break up and are badly defined, unsettled weather may be expected.
Note: 1 drachm = 3.89 grams.
And finally, a caveat by a "storm-glass" maker in Australia: ... it soon became apparent that they were all designed for use in regions with a colder climate than the mild winters of Perth, Western Australia. Consequently, the quantities of the ingredients were altered to give good results for warmer climes. The end result is a storm-glass that gives results very similar to those described in the old texts. Another problem relates to the comfort of the modern home. As the storm-glass is an instrument that reacts to environmental temperature changes, it works best in a draughty, un-insulated and unheated home.
_____
So we see that Lovecraft's love of chemistry merged with meteorology and so he must have loved watching the changing shape of the crystals and charting the results.
_____
I was unable to locate the "Large Company" on Da Google for obvious reasons. The words are so common that the search was overwhelmed by modern news blurbs about large companies. The items presented should suffice for illustrative purposes, however.
_____
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In HPL's 1907 summary of Providence weather, he mentions he has access to a storm glass? What?
Read this query to an antique site: "I have seen a device called a storm glass which consists of a glass tube filled with a liquid containing crystals. The shape of the crystals is supposed to change according to the pressure. How does this device work? Apparently, Darwin used one on board the Beagle."
Here is an answer from some sites, and some history: The storm-glass, sometimes known as the chemical barometer or camphor glass, is an ancient weather forcaster. It consists of a sealed glass bottle containing a mixture of chemicals that undergo interesting and unusual crystal growth in response to changing weather conditions. It has been around since around 1750 but was not in common use until the 19th century.
Robert Fitzroy described the storm-glass in The Weather Book published in 1863. In this book he offers some interesting thoughts on the operation of the storm-glass suggesting atmospheric pressure, temperature, electrical disturbances and even the direction of the wind being the cause of the changes in crystal formation.
The storm glass may have been invented by an alchemist for Italian sailors. One can make a storm glass by mixing 10 grams of camphor, 40 cubic centimetres of ethanol, 2·5 grams of potassium nitrate, 2·5 grams of ammonium chloride and 33 cubic centimetres of distilled water, then placing the mixture in a corked test tube.
Changes in the liquid are supposed to show how the weather will change. Clear liquid means bright weather; dim liquid means rain. If it is dim with small stars, expect thunderstorms. Large flakes mean it will be overcast or, in winter, snowy. Crystals at the bottom mean frost and threads in the upper part mean it will be windy. If the liquid contains small dots, expect humid or foggy conditions, and if it contains small stars on sunny winter days, expect snow in a few days.
Was it useful? Read this letter:
About forty years ago I found a recipe for the liquid in a storm glass. I prepared a sample, sealed it in a glass tube and left it on the roof of a factory in south London for six months. I examined the tube every day and tried to correlate atmospheric conditions with changes in the crystals in the tube. I could find no correlation, but as the tube was sealed, its contents could only react to temperature changes and not pressure. - From South Africa.
A warning from a writer in London: There is the possibility that somebody may be seriously hurt trying to make this device without having first thought about what they are going to do. Camphor is a pungent organic chemical, which is combustible. It has a history of use as a plasticiser in explosives and is readily oxidisable; ammonium chloride decomposes when heated, releasing toxic fumes and potassium nitrate is an oxidising agent. Mixing these three chemicals together in a dry state could very probably result in the potassium nitrate oxidising the camphor, causing it to combust and the ammonium chloride to decompose. The consequences may be fatal. If this device really must be made, probably the safest way to do this is to dissolve the potassium nitrate and ammonium chloride in the water, then add the ethanol and finally the camphor.
Luckily Lovecraft did not try to make this!
... a description of a practical storm-glass taken from the book Pharmaceutical Formulas by Peter MacEwan, published in 1908. The article includes notes to assist in the reading of the instrument.
Camphor - half ounce
Ammonium chloride - half ounce
Potassium nitrate - half ounce
Rectified spirit - one ounce
Distilled water - two ounces
Weigh the spirit into the bottle and dissolve the camphor, then add the salts and the water (warm). Shake, and when dissolved filter.
Long narrow tubes of glass are filled with this solution and hermetically sealed or corked. The tubes are then affixed to boards by means of wires in the same way as barometers are fixed. The changes of the solution signify the following:
Clear liquid : Bright weather.
Crystals at bottom : Thick air, frost in winter.
Dim liquid with small stars : Thunderstorms.
Large flakes : Heavy air, overcast sky, snow in winter.
Threads in upper portion of liquid : Windy weather.
Small dots : Damp weather, fog.
Rising flakes which remain high : Wind in the upper air regions.
Small stars : In winter on bright, sunny days, snow in one or two days.
The higher the crystals rise in the glass tube in winter the colder it will be.
And here is another from a pharmacopedia:
Nearly fill a glass tube 10 in. long and ¾ in. diameter with the following liquid, then hermetically seal:-
Camphor - 2 drachm
Potassium nitrate - ½ drachm
Ammonium chloride - ½ drachm
Absolute alcohol - 2 ounces
Water - 2 ounces
Disolve.
Temperature is the main factor in changing the appearance of the solution. The indications are as follows:-
(a) During cold weather beautiful fernlike or feathery crystallisation is developed at the top, and sometimes throughout the liquid. The crystallisation increases with cold, and if the structure grows downwards the cold will continue.
(b) During warm and serene weather the crystals dissolve, the upper and greater part of the liquid, becoming perfectly clear. The greater the proportion of clear liquid, the greater the probability of fine dry weather.
(c) When the upper portion is clear and the flakes of crystals rise to the top and aggregate, it is a sign of increasing wind and stormy weather.
(d) In cold weather if the top of the liquid becomes thick and cloudy, it denotes approaching rain.
(e) In warm weather if small crystals rise in the liquid, which still maintains its clearness, rain may be expected.
(f) Sharpness in the points and features of the fern-like structure of the crystals is a sign of fine weather ; but when they begin to break up and are badly defined, unsettled weather may be expected.
Note: 1 drachm = 3.89 grams.
And finally, a caveat by a "storm-glass" maker in Australia: ... it soon became apparent that they were all designed for use in regions with a colder climate than the mild winters of Perth, Western Australia. Consequently, the quantities of the ingredients were altered to give good results for warmer climes. The end result is a storm-glass that gives results very similar to those described in the old texts. Another problem relates to the comfort of the modern home. As the storm-glass is an instrument that reacts to environmental temperature changes, it works best in a draughty, un-insulated and unheated home.
_____
So we see that Lovecraft's love of chemistry merged with meteorology and so he must have loved watching the changing shape of the crystals and charting the results.
_____
I was unable to locate the "Large Company" on Da Google for obvious reasons. The words are so common that the search was overwhelmed by modern news blurbs about large companies. The items presented should suffice for illustrative purposes, however.
Saturday, April 10, 2010
Providence Engineering Dept.'s Meteorology Report
Notice the nearly exact verbiage that Lovecraft seems to use in his own annual meteorological reports. In hsin earl days, circa 1904, he made copies daily of his forecasts. In his 1907 annual report, he says that he keeps copies of his reports for public viewing. This excerpt is from the 1902 Report of the City Engineer. Providence had TWO meteorological reports - one from ladd Observatory, and one from the city.
Lovecraft's Meteorological Work
In the 1906 Meteorological Report, we read that part of the equipment is: "Rain Guage by Queen and Co." Are there implications for simply having this device?
Well, one wonders if Lovecraft's work were a game, an attempt to play at astronomy and meteorology before starting his carer? - or something of a more serious nature? Before we delve deeply into this, Chrispy found a St. Louis engineering and planning book from 1911.
It reads in part about the complexities of controlling rain runoff in an urban environment (and mentions the Queen and Co. rain guages). See text below. These values in St. Louis were being used for urban expansion planning, and drainage work. One suspects similar work was being done in the sprawling and teaming Providence, and lots of data was needed.
This was modern, 20th century work, and Lovecraft was being a real scientist - if his work was actually being used by planners. This was true meteorology, and would have been possibly sanctioned by Brown University (Upton?). The station was located on top of the Rhode Island Journal Bldg., and while the years before WWI were placid, one suspects that not just anyone climbed upon the roof of a prestigious newspaper building without some permission and sanction.
_____
Experimental Work.—The method of computing runoff outlined above is theoretically correct, but the values of "p," the percentage of runoff, and the critical time for the remote inlet, are based on a few published observations which arc usually incomplete and of doubtful value when applied to local conditions. In fact, the whole subject of rainfall and runoff in general is a dark spot in engineering literature and knowledge, and it is only very recently that engineers have awakened to the necessity of obtaining more accurate information on this subject.
The extraordinary amount of sewer work now in progress in St. Louis has brought forcibly home to the designers the fact that a little more data might result in a great saving in money, either in first cost of the sewer system, or in damages should the sewers prove insufficient. For this reason, a series of observations has been undertaken which is expected to give
1st. More accurate records of intensity of precipitation.
2nd. Approximate values of the percentage of runoff under various conditions.
3rd. Approximate values of the critical time for street inlets.
4th. An idea of the area covered, at any one time, by storms of various intensities.
To cover the first and fourth points, a series of rain gauge stations has been established. The gauges now installed arc: H Frieze tipping bucket recording rain gauges; M Queen and Company automatic recording rain gauges; o Standard rain gauges.
In addition, the records from the Frieze instruments of the U. S. Weather Bureau Station and the St. Louis University Station are received, giving in all 8 automatic and 5 standard machines. To secure the data on runoff, 10 Bristol automatic recording water level gauges have been installed in the sewers.
Well, one wonders if Lovecraft's work were a game, an attempt to play at astronomy and meteorology before starting his carer? - or something of a more serious nature? Before we delve deeply into this, Chrispy found a St. Louis engineering and planning book from 1911.
It reads in part about the complexities of controlling rain runoff in an urban environment (and mentions the Queen and Co. rain guages). See text below. These values in St. Louis were being used for urban expansion planning, and drainage work. One suspects similar work was being done in the sprawling and teaming Providence, and lots of data was needed.
This was modern, 20th century work, and Lovecraft was being a real scientist - if his work was actually being used by planners. This was true meteorology, and would have been possibly sanctioned by Brown University (Upton?). The station was located on top of the Rhode Island Journal Bldg., and while the years before WWI were placid, one suspects that not just anyone climbed upon the roof of a prestigious newspaper building without some permission and sanction.
_____
Experimental Work.—The method of computing runoff outlined above is theoretically correct, but the values of "p," the percentage of runoff, and the critical time for the remote inlet, are based on a few published observations which arc usually incomplete and of doubtful value when applied to local conditions. In fact, the whole subject of rainfall and runoff in general is a dark spot in engineering literature and knowledge, and it is only very recently that engineers have awakened to the necessity of obtaining more accurate information on this subject.
The extraordinary amount of sewer work now in progress in St. Louis has brought forcibly home to the designers the fact that a little more data might result in a great saving in money, either in first cost of the sewer system, or in damages should the sewers prove insufficient. For this reason, a series of observations has been undertaken which is expected to give
1st. More accurate records of intensity of precipitation.
2nd. Approximate values of the percentage of runoff under various conditions.
3rd. Approximate values of the critical time for street inlets.
4th. An idea of the area covered, at any one time, by storms of various intensities.
To cover the first and fourth points, a series of rain gauge stations has been established. The gauges now installed arc: H Frieze tipping bucket recording rain gauges; M Queen and Company automatic recording rain gauges; o Standard rain gauges.
In addition, the records from the Frieze instruments of the U. S. Weather Bureau Station and the St. Louis University Station are received, giving in all 8 automatic and 5 standard machines. To secure the data on runoff, 10 Bristol automatic recording water level gauges have been installed in the sewers.
Friday, April 09, 2010
Ives Difraction Spectroscope
Chrispy found on-line an old 1906 factory catalog for a similar items as HPL used in 1906-7.
"On Dec. 24, 1906 ... procured a diffraction spectroscope by Ives. The object was to observe the condition of the atmosphere with respect to aquous vapor. It is well known that atmospheric moisture causes a dark shaded band, called the "Rain Band", in the solar spectrum nead the "D" line. This band, with respect to intensity, is observed daily, and is an index to coming rain, far superior to the hygrometer ...", H P Lovecraft in his 1906 "Third Annual Report of the Prov. Meteorological Station"
The C-137 model was the Ives Innovative Spectrocope (pictured) No. 1, was $45.00. In addition, one might need extra eyepieces at $2.00, or cross line eye piece for $6.00.
Version 2 was the same as No. 1 with the addition of an extra front, circular screen, and tripod focusing glass. Cost $10.50.
These were staggering sums of money. Except for some meager money that MIGHT have come from writing newspaper articles, he had only his $2500.00 inheritance money (from 1904), and some (?) incidental incomes.
The timing of Christmas Eve is probably not a coincidence, but did he buy it, did Susan buy it, did Dr. Clark, or Professor Upton, or some other agency purchase this new and expensive device? Alas, we shall not know except to agree that this was not only expensive, but high grade equipment Lovecraft was using. It was not to be trifled with, and HPL knew what he was doing.
While this brochure is from Chicago, one suspects that the one out of Boston or elsewhere would have read with similar information. Lovecraft would have been eying for some time, one suspects.
As a comparison, here are some 1906 statistics on wages and costs.
The average wage in the U.S. was 22 cents per hour.
The average U.S. worker made between $200 and $400 per year .
A competent accountant could expect to earn $2000 per year,
a dentist $2,500 per year, a veterinarian between $1,500 and $4,000 per year, and a mechanical engineer about $5,000 per year.
Sugar cost four cents a pound.
Eggs were fourteen cents a dozen.
Coffee was fifteen cents a pound.
Thursday, April 08, 2010
Lovecraft's Meteorological Equipment (1906) Part A
In his "Third Annual Report of the Prov. Meteorological Station: 1906" of 16 January 1907, Lovecraft declares he has:
(1) Mercurial Barometer by Spooner
(2) Sixe's Thermometer by Taylor
(3) Rain Guage by Queen & Co.
(4) Wind Vane by Gage & Co.
(5) Storm Glass by Lage
(6) Stan[dard] Thermometer by Wilder
(7) Diffraction Spectroscope by Ives
What is all this stuff, and were they his - or owned by someone else like the Providence Journal?
Let us take (1). This is a barometer devised by Spooner and created by SPOONER BAROMETER OF BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. It is described as "elongated form in walnut with ebony trim. The receptacle base with shaped wood. The dial at top with thermometer on right side and barometer on left." There were no doubt many versions since it's late 19th century cration.
The design remained relatively unchanged over the years (since 1850?). Here is another description: Stick Barometer E. & C. Spooner, Boston, American, ca 1850, of walnut and ebonized walnut. Telescope form, manufactured by E.C. Spooner, Boston. Curved molded crest above a silvered register with barometer and thermometer engraved The/Storm King Barometer/Warranted Correct/Manufactured/and Sold by/E.C. Spooner Boston; ht. 42 in.
We do not know what year or model this is, but it would look a lot like this image.
(1) Mercurial Barometer by Spooner
(2) Sixe's Thermometer by Taylor
(3) Rain Guage by Queen & Co.
(4) Wind Vane by Gage & Co.
(5) Storm Glass by Lage
(6) Stan[dard] Thermometer by Wilder
(7) Diffraction Spectroscope by Ives
What is all this stuff, and were they his - or owned by someone else like the Providence Journal?
Let us take (1). This is a barometer devised by Spooner and created by SPOONER BAROMETER OF BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. It is described as "elongated form in walnut with ebony trim. The receptacle base with shaped wood. The dial at top with thermometer on right side and barometer on left." There were no doubt many versions since it's late 19th century cration.
The design remained relatively unchanged over the years (since 1850?). Here is another description: Stick Barometer E. & C. Spooner, Boston, American, ca 1850, of walnut and ebonized walnut. Telescope form, manufactured by E.C. Spooner, Boston. Curved molded crest above a silvered register with barometer and thermometer engraved The/Storm King Barometer/Warranted Correct/Manufactured/and Sold by/E.C. Spooner Boston; ht. 42 in.
We do not know what year or model this is, but it would look a lot like this image.
Monday, March 08, 2010
Weather reports: Procedures of 1903-1904
Of interest was that Lovecraft filled out reports for several years as an observor. Up to at leat 1903, the Government Observer was a Mr B S Pague. How Lovecraft's work as a teenager interfaced with pague or anyone else has yet to be understood.
______
text:
METEOROLOGICAL The following meteorological instruments have been in operation under the direction of this department the past year 1 self registering barometer 1 standard thermometer 1 thermometer 1 hygrometer 1 anemometer I rnin gauge 1 anemoscope 1 maximum thermometer 1 rain gauge 1 minimum 1 standard barometer The following tables show the record of meteorological observations that have been kept and compiled during tlie year viz One table showing the depth of rain and melted snow that fell during each storm and the duration of each storm in hours during the year A summary is also given following this table showing the number of times from 1877 when the keeping of these records by the City Engineer began to 1003 inclusive that the depth of rainfall of each storm has been the nearest to a series of amounts ranging from one one hundredth of an inch to eight inches One table showing the monthly and annual depth of rain and melted snow expressed in inches from 1832 to 1903 inclusive also the amounts that have fallen from January 1st to the end of each mouth inclusive during each year Twelve tables showing the daily observations during each month of 1903 One table showing the monthly summary for the year 1903 and the yearly summary of each year since 1899 Three tables showing the monthly temperatures since 1880 viz the mean temperature the maximum temperature and the minimum temperature CITY DOCUMENT No 10
The record of meteorological observations is computed and hektographed monthly and about twenty three copies are sent to people who are particularly desirous of obtaining the same for scientific investigation or practical use A great deal of detailed and general information in regard to meteorology is also furnished to people who make inquiries to representatives of the press and for use in court cases The record of amount of snow on the ground on Monday of each week during the winter is furnished to the United States Weather Bureau at Boston and also a monthly record of maximum and minimum temperatures and rainfall is furnished each mouth to the same office Several tests and adjustments of aneroid barometers have been made during the year The use of the self registering anemometer and self registering rain gauge loaned last year by the Government Observer Mr BS Pague was continued until June 25 190.1 when they were returned to the exhibit at Crescent Park The records relating to meteorological observations are kept by the Water Department REPORT OF THE CITY ENGINEER
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text:
METEOROLOGICAL The following meteorological instruments have been in operation under the direction of this department the past year 1 self registering barometer 1 standard thermometer 1 thermometer 1 hygrometer 1 anemometer I rnin gauge 1 anemoscope 1 maximum thermometer 1 rain gauge 1 minimum 1 standard barometer The following tables show the record of meteorological observations that have been kept and compiled during tlie year viz One table showing the depth of rain and melted snow that fell during each storm and the duration of each storm in hours during the year A summary is also given following this table showing the number of times from 1877 when the keeping of these records by the City Engineer began to 1003 inclusive that the depth of rainfall of each storm has been the nearest to a series of amounts ranging from one one hundredth of an inch to eight inches One table showing the monthly and annual depth of rain and melted snow expressed in inches from 1832 to 1903 inclusive also the amounts that have fallen from January 1st to the end of each mouth inclusive during each year Twelve tables showing the daily observations during each month of 1903 One table showing the monthly summary for the year 1903 and the yearly summary of each year since 1899 Three tables showing the monthly temperatures since 1880 viz the mean temperature the maximum temperature and the minimum temperature CITY DOCUMENT No 10
The record of meteorological observations is computed and hektographed monthly and about twenty three copies are sent to people who are particularly desirous of obtaining the same for scientific investigation or practical use A great deal of detailed and general information in regard to meteorology is also furnished to people who make inquiries to representatives of the press and for use in court cases The record of amount of snow on the ground on Monday of each week during the winter is furnished to the United States Weather Bureau at Boston and also a monthly record of maximum and minimum temperatures and rainfall is furnished each mouth to the same office Several tests and adjustments of aneroid barometers have been made during the year The use of the self registering anemometer and self registering rain gauge loaned last year by the Government Observer Mr BS Pague was continued until June 25 190.1 when they were returned to the exhibit at Crescent Park The records relating to meteorological observations are kept by the Water Department REPORT OF THE CITY ENGINEER
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